On the Problem of Induction

A Critique of Nelson Goodman’s Concept of the New Riddle of InductionThe development of the method of induction has been privy to the presentation and solution of riddles. At the initial level of its development, it has been privy to the old riddle of induction discovered by Hume. After the solution of the former riddle, however, a new riddle of induction was discovered by Nelson Goodman. In lieu of this, this paper opts to consider the development of the method of induction as a methodology defined by Hume and Goodman’s conception of the Inductive method.Induction refers to â€Å"a method of reasoning by which a general law or principle is inferred from observed particular instances† (Flew 171). The method of inductive inference may be considered as the primary means through which justifications are formulated to show the relationship of evidence towards particular assumptions (Norton 2). The process of induction, in this sense, may be seen to arise whenever we note that evidence lends support to a hypothesis while in the process failing to establish its deductive certainty. It was such a formulation of the method of induction that enabled the conception of the first riddle. What follows is a presentation of the main arguments of the aforementioned riddle as formulated by David Hume.Hume argued that since no necessary connections exists between empirical phenomena, it is always possible that a future observation will prove our inferences wrong no matter how appealing it may have been or how richly supported by past observations. This problem, in the more recent formulations of the problem has been referred to as the uniformity principle [in this sense the lack of such uniformity]. According to the argument, nature has no uniformity. If such is the case it thereby follows that there is no voucher that which ensure the consistency of man’s most refined predictions. It might be argued that such an assumption has never been denied in th e formulation of predictions however there has been agreement regarding the results of such an agreement [or lack thereof] within the province of induction.To some, it means that induction is never valid or justified, while to others, it means that induction simply calls for different standards of validity (Landesman 164). The latter view strips the aforementioned riddle [Humean riddle] of its problematic context. This is evident if one considers that since the rules of deductive validity are inapplicable to induction, it cannot be a problem that inductive inference is unavoidably attended by the possibility that a future observation may prove it wrong (Goodman 4). The old riddle is then dismissed because it cannot possibly be the genuine problem of induction.Fact, Fiction, and Forecast present Goodman’s construal of what he refers to as the new riddle of induction. After refuting the old riddle of induction [the refutation of which is evident in the former paragraph], Goodma n proceeds to outline what he takes to be the genuine problem of induction and its tentative solution. The problem of induction, he writes, is a problem of demonstrating the difference between valid and invalid predictions (Goodman 4). According to Goodman, a prediction is valid if it conforms to a valid rule of induction, and a rule is valid if it yields valid predictions.He acknowledges that such an assumption is characterized by circularity however he notes that it is important to perceive such a conception of the problem in terms of the conceptions of justifications for arguments.   Goodman notes that inductive predictions based on past regularities work better than those based on any other alternative. If such is the case, the rules for formulating predictions must be constructed in such a way that they will coincide with common practices of inductive reasoning.This, on the other hand, is further developed by the quality of predictions, which it produces. This is clearly expl icated by Rubenstein as he notes, â€Å"the centerpiece of a valid inductive logic [according to Goodman] is its reliance on past regularities, and the prescriptive mandate of inductive validity is inseparable from a descriptive account of how inductive judgments are commonly made† (39). This has been the result of Goodman’s dissolution of the old riddle of induction. What follows this is Goodman’s explication that the most promising solution of the aforementioned riddle is untenable. It is through the introduction of such untenability that Goodman presents what he perceives to be the new riddle of induction.Goodman presents two hypotheses that are to be addressed through the use of the inductive method. One says that all emeralds are green and the other says that all emeralds are grue, where grue is said to apply to all things examined before t just in case they are green but to other things just in case they are blue (Goodman 10). Both hypotheses seem to be eq ually well supported by the evidence: all emeralds examined prior to t have been found to be green and grue. However, the two hypotheses are mutually exclusive. If emeralds are grue, they will be blue at t and thereafter, but if the alternative hypothesis is correct, they will be green. Thus, we are left with the paradox that Goodman christened the ‘new riddle of induction'.We cannot, after all, justify induction by appealing to past regularities. However, the reason, according to Goodman, is not the lack of the elusive uniformity principle, but the previously unrecognized ubiquity of regularities.   According to Goodman, regularities exist where one finds them. In relation to this Goodman states that one, however, finds them everywhere (12). If such is the case, it therefore follows that it is useless to base inductive validity on past regularities since it is not possible to predict and hence distinguish which regularities are valid and invalid.At this point, I would like to present a summary of the aforementioned discussion. In the aforementioned discussion, Goodman believes that the old riddle [the Humean riddle/the uniformity principle] has been dissolved and that induction is justified by past regularities. The only remaining difficulty he sees, however, lies in finding a rule for distinguishing between regularities that do and do not yield valid inductive predictions. As was noted in the above discussion, the possibility of such is not possible. This is evident if one considers that regularity necessitates the occurrence of acts of inductive inference. Therefore, the genuine problem of induction cannot be the distinction between the distinction of regularities that do or do not yield valid inductive predictions since the specification of such necessitates the formulation of inductive inferences.As I reckon, Goodman aforementioned conception fails to account for the process of induction. It is important to note that Goodman contends that inductio n begins with regularity. Rubenstein notes, â€Å"induction does not begin with regularity – it ends with it† (44). The failure to consider this leads Goodman to misconstrue the problem of induction. It is important to note that experience of reality does not necessarily start with regularities but rather with individual observations. The role of induction, in this sense lies in providing us with justified methods that allows us to posit the observations that we will account for as regularities. Goodman, however, failed to account for this.In addition to this, it is important to note that such a failure can also be traced to Goodman’s assumptions regarding the process in which individuals formulate inferences. Goodman's error is compounded when he makes a distinction between identifying regularity and projecting it. Once we have decided that our observations represent regularity, it is automatically projected in both temporal directions. This is, in fact, what w e mean by applying the term regularity to our data.Furthermore, Stich and Nisbett contend that the â€Å"equilibrium with inductive practices† that Goodman posited as a necessary aspect in formulating a valid inductive methodology is â€Å"neither necessary nor sufficient for a rule of inductive inference to be justified† (194). They argue that such an assumption fails to consider that â€Å"human subjects regularly and systematically make invalid inferences† and that there an instance wherein human reasoning enables an individual to â€Å"accept invalid rules and reject valid one’s that ought to govern the inference at hand† (Stitch and Nisbett 194).In summary, the aforementioned paper presented Goodman’s arguments in relation to his conception of the new riddle in induction. Such a riddle, however, under scrutiny may be seen as based upon a mistaken assumption of the justification process of beliefs that necessitates the introduction of in formation garnered through the method of induction. This is evident, for example, if one considers the manner in which observations enable the formulation of regularities and not the other way around. An analysis of Goodman’s supposed riddle of induction thereby leaves the reader wondering if such a riddle may be considered as a valid concern for the adherents of the inductive methodology.Works CitedFlew, Anthony.   A Dictionary of Philosophy.   London: Pan Books, 1983.Goodman, Nelson.   Fact, Fiction, and Forecast.   Massachussets: Harvard University Press, 1983.Landesman, Charles.  Ã‚   Skepticism: The Central Issues.   London: Blackwell Publishing, 2002.Rubenstein, Arthur.   â€Å"Induction, Grue Emeralds and Lady Macbeth’s Fallacy.†Ã‚   The Philosophical Quarterly 48.190 (Jan. 1998): 37-49.Stitch, Stephen and Richard Nisbett.   â€Å"Justification and the Psychology of Human Reasoning.’   Philosophy of Science 47.2 (Jun. 1980): 188- 202.

Aaron Douglas. Bio Essay

† He made numerous contributions at Fisk University. ?On May 26, 1899, Aaron Douglas was born in Topeka, Kansas. During his time in the Harlem Renaissance, Douglas helped to guide the artistic and literary movement. He is sometime referred to as the ‘Father of Black American Art. Douglas developed an interest in art early on, finding some of his inspiration from his mother’s love for painting watercolors (Biography 1). † Proceeding graduation in 1917 from Topeka, Kansas, Douglas enrolled in the University of Nebraska, which is also known as Lincoln. â€Å"There he pursued his passion for creating art, earning his Bachelor of Fine Arts Degree in 1922 (Biography 1). † At the same time, he connected with students of Lincoln High School in Kansas City, Missouri to share his interest of art with them. After two years of bonding with his pupils, Douglas decided to migrate to New York City. New York’s Harlem neighborhood had a thriving art scene; therefore it would not take any time for Douglas to get use to New York.? Reaching New York in 1925, Douglas swiftly became familiar with the Harlem’s cultural life. He began his career in New York as an apprentice for Winold Reiss, a German artist whom he met through Charles S. Johnson. Being an apprentice for Reiss only lasted two years before he continued on to became the editor of Opportunity, the National Urban League’s magazine. Through his covers for Opportunity and The Crisis, Douglas set forth a new vision for the black artists. His strong, geometric forms and Egyptian profiles resulted in a style later described by cultural critic and educator Richard Powell as ‘Afro-Cubism (Aiga 1). † In 1926, Douglas finally stepped up to the plate and married Alta Sawyer. Mrs. Alta was a teacher as well. Their h ome became a social Mecca for the likes of Langton Hughes and W. E. B. Du Bois. â€Å"Around the same time, Douglas loaned his talents to the first and only issue of Wallace Thurman’s magazine FIRE!! nd later designed the cover of Thurman’s short-lived magazine Harlem (Aiga 1). † With Douglas reputation for creating compelling graphics, he became an in-demand illustrator for many writers (Biography 1). † A few of Douglas popular illustrations consist of James Weldon Johnson’s poetic work, God’s Trombone (1927), and Paul Morand’s Black Magic (1929). â€Å"In addition to Douglas illustration work, he explored educational opportunities; after receiving a fellowship from the Barnes Foundation in Pennsylvania, he took time to study African and modern art (Biography 1). This experience led him to creating some of his best-known paintings in the 1930s. Meanwhile, Douglas was hired to produce a mural for the library at Fisk University. Contin uing to broaden his horizon, Douglas spent time in Paris, where he studied with Charles Despiau and Othon Friesz. â€Å"Back in New York, in 1933, Douglas had his first solo art show. Soon after, he started one of his most legendary works – a series of murals entitled â€Å"Aspects of Negro Life† that featured four panels, each depicting a different part of the African-American experience. Each mural included a captivating mix of Douglas’s influences, from jazz music to abstract and geometric art (Biography 2). † ? Returning to Fisk University in the late 1930s, Douglas served as an assistant professor, and shortly after he founded the school’s art department. Because Douglas was valued his educational responsibilities, he attend Columbia University’s Teachers College in 1941, and completed three years earning a master’s degree in art education. â€Å"He also established the Carl Van Vechten Gallery at Fisk and helped secure vital works for it collection, including pieces by Winold Reiss and Alfred Steiglitz (Biography 2). Outside of his works in his classroom, Douglas remained committed to learning and growing as an artist. â€Å"He received a fellowship from the Julius Rosenwald Foundation in 1938, which funded his painting trip Haiti and several other Caribbean islands. He later won other grants to support his artistic endeavors ( Biography 2). † Douglas had several solo exhibits over the years from his continuation to produce new works. ?Douglas received countless honors during his later years. â€Å"In 1963, he was invited by President John F. Kennedy to attend a celebration of the centennial of the Emancipation Proclamation, held at the White House. Douglas also earned and honorary doctorate from Fisk University in 1973, seven years after his retirement from the school (Biography 2). † He still remained an active painter and lecturer until the end of his life. On September 2, 1979, Douglas passed away at the age of 79, in a Nashville hospital. According to some reporters, he died of a pulmonary embolism. â€Å"Pulmonary embolism is a sudden blockage in a lung artery. The blockage usually is caused by a blood clot that travels to the lung from a vein in the leg (NIH 1). ? After Douglas death, a special memorial service was held for him at Fisk University, where he taught for nearly 30 years. â€Å"At the service, Walter J. Leonard, the university’s president at the time, remembered Douglas with the following statement: ‘Aaron Douglas was one of the most accomplished of the interpreters of our instituti ons and cultural values. He captured the strength and quickness of the young; he translated the memories of the old; and projected the determination of the inspired and courageous (Biography 2). † Aaron Douglas. Bio Essay † He made numerous contributions at Fisk University. ?On May 26, 1899, Aaron Douglas was born in Topeka, Kansas. During his time in the Harlem Renaissance, Douglas helped to guide the artistic and literary movement. He is sometime referred to as the ‘Father of Black American Art. Douglas developed an interest in art early on, finding some of his inspiration from his mother’s love for painting watercolors (Biography 1). † Proceeding graduation in 1917 from Topeka, Kansas, Douglas enrolled in the University of Nebraska, which is also known as Lincoln. â€Å"There he pursued his passion for creating art, earning his Bachelor of Fine Arts Degree in 1922 (Biography 1). † At the same time, he connected with students of Lincoln High School in Kansas City, Missouri to share his interest of art with them. After two years of bonding with his pupils, Douglas decided to migrate to New York City. New York’s Harlem neighborhood had a thriving art scene; therefore it would not take any time for Douglas to get use to New York.? Reaching New York in 1925, Douglas swiftly became familiar with the Harlem’s cultural life. He began his career in New York as an apprentice for Winold Reiss, a German artist whom he met through Charles S. Johnson. Being an apprentice for Reiss only lasted two years before he continued on to became the editor of Opportunity, the National Urban League’s magazine. Through his covers for Opportunity and The Crisis, Douglas set forth a new vision for the black artists. His strong, geometric forms and Egyptian profiles resulted in a style later described by cultural critic and educator Richard Powell as ‘Afro-Cubism (Aiga 1). † In 1926, Douglas finally stepped up to the plate and married Alta Sawyer. Mrs. Alta was a teacher as well. Their h ome became a social Mecca for the likes of Langton Hughes and W. E. B. Du Bois. â€Å"Around the same time, Douglas loaned his talents to the first and only issue of Wallace Thurman’s magazine FIRE!! nd later designed the cover of Thurman’s short-lived magazine Harlem (Aiga 1). † With Douglas reputation for creating compelling graphics, he became an in-demand illustrator for many writers (Biography 1). † A few of Douglas popular illustrations consist of James Weldon Johnson’s poetic work, God’s Trombone (1927), and Paul Morand’s Black Magic (1929). â€Å"In addition to Douglas illustration work, he explored educational opportunities; after receiving a fellowship from the Barnes Foundation in Pennsylvania, he took time to study African and modern art (Biography 1). This experience led him to creating some of his best-known paintings in the 1930s. Meanwhile, Douglas was hired to produce a mural for the library at Fisk University. Contin uing to broaden his horizon, Douglas spent time in Paris, where he studied with Charles Despiau and Othon Friesz. â€Å"Back in New York, in 1933, Douglas had his first solo art show. Soon after, he started one of his most legendary works – a series of murals entitled â€Å"Aspects of Negro Life† that featured four panels, each depicting a different part of the African-American experience. Each mural included a captivating mix of Douglas’s influences, from jazz music to abstract and geometric art (Biography 2). † ? Returning to Fisk University in the late 1930s, Douglas served as an assistant professor, and shortly after he founded the school’s art department. Because Douglas was valued his educational responsibilities, he attend Columbia University’s Teachers College in 1941, and completed three years earning a master’s degree in art education. â€Å"He also established the Carl Van Vechten Gallery at Fisk and helped secure vital works for it collection, including pieces by Winold Reiss and Alfred Steiglitz (Biography 2). Outside of his works in his classroom, Douglas remained committed to learning and growing as an artist. â€Å"He received a fellowship from the Julius Rosenwald Foundation in 1938, which funded his painting trip Haiti and several other Caribbean islands. He later won other grants to support his artistic endeavors ( Biography 2). † Douglas had several solo exhibits over the years from his continuation to produce new works. ?Douglas received countless honors during his later years. â€Å"In 1963, he was invited by President John F. Kennedy to attend a celebration of the centennial of the Emancipation Proclamation, held at the White House. Douglas also earned and honorary doctorate from Fisk University in 1973, seven years after his retirement from the school (Biography 2). † He still remained an active painter and lecturer until the end of his life. On September 2, 1979, Douglas passed away at the age of 79, in a Nashville hospital. According to some reporters, he died of a pulmonary embolism. â€Å"Pulmonary embolism is a sudden blockage in a lung artery. The blockage usually is caused by a blood clot that travels to the lung from a vein in the leg (NIH 1). ? After Douglas death, a special memorial service was held for him at Fisk University, where he taught for nearly 30 years. â€Å"At the service, Walter J. Leonard, the university’s president at the time, remembered Douglas with the following statement: ‘Aaron Douglas was one of the most accomplished of the interpreters of our instituti ons and cultural values. He captured the strength and quickness of the young; he translated the memories of the old; and projected the determination of the inspired and courageous (Biography 2). †

Affirmative Action Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Affirmative Action - Essay Example The phrase â€Å"affirmative action† was introduced by Executive Order 10925. EO 10925 was issued by U.S. President John F. Kennedy in 1961, which urged employers to actively adopt policies and safeguards against discriminatory practices in their workplace. Four years after, EO 11246 made it mandatory for federal contractors and subcontractors to: (1) identify underutilized minorities, (2) assess availability of minorities, and if available, (3) to set goals and timetables to fill vacancies with minorities with the aim of reducing such underutilization. In 1967, EO 11375 extended the benefits of AA to women. The further expansion of the application of AA was made possible by the U.S. Supreme Court when it promulgated the Bakke decision. In this case the Court was asked to rule whether or not it was unconstitutional for universities to give preference for blacks and minorities in admitting applicants for placement, because it violated the doctrine of â€Å"equal protections of the laws.† The Court ruled that â€Å"racial preferences are permissible if their purpose is to improve racial diversity among students, and if they do not stipulate fixed minority quotas but take race into account as one factor among many (Dworkin, 79). Today, AA is more widely observed, but as employment prospects and educational placements become more competitive, more people are raising questions about the propriety and fairness of AA. In defense of affirmative action According to the study by Bowen & Bok (cited by Dworkin, 79), the success of racial integration is attributable to AA in education, because it has enabled a higher rate of graduation among African American students, which led to more African American leaders in industry, professionals, community leaders, and subsequently a more sustained interaction and lasting friendships among the races than would have been otherwise expected. The benefits of AA are not in themselves the moral argument; the argument is th at where for past centuries racial minorities have been constrained to live in conditions of extreme social and economic disadvantage, it is but right that AA provide for them now an advantage over the majority to make up for the adverse conditions they have been subjected to. The implications are more than merely symbolic, and the effects referred to are more than just economic. Present-day descendants of slaves and people of color start life from a position of disadvantage in institutionalized society as a result of the limitations imposed on their ancestors. This is known as the â€Å"stigma theory† (Soni, 581). Parents denied an education because of their race will provide little inspiration for their children to conceive of and aspire for such education. The moral precept that all people are created equal, to be applied with effect, refers to enabling individuals be perceived and regarded the respect of equals. AA not only provides reparation for the past, but more pragm atically speeds up the slow process of transforming social perception. An African American, or woman, or a person with a disability, are persons who, in aspiring for the opportunities provided by the equality clause, struggle under the weight of social perception which, while not discriminatory per se, tends to manifest in subtle ways of stereotyping that renders the â€Å"equality† superficial. In this manner, AA provides an active catalyst to accelerate the social transformation to true equality. Critique of affirmative action Detractors of AA point out that the policy has been implemented by positive and aggressive action â€Å"

The Impact of the Arab Spring on Egypt's Energy Research Paper

The Impact of the Arab Spring on Egypt's Energy - Research Paper Example Investment in oil production is critical to both political and economic stability of the Arab countries. Key players in the oil industry usually value political stability because it dictates the relationship between the international players and the producing countries. For instance, the relationship between BP and political regime of the ousted Egypt President Mubarak was critical to the survival of the company in Egypt. In most cases, the political influence of a country defined a relationship between the country and the international players. Policies devised the oil producing countries do not only influence the production oil and gas in this countries but also influence its supply in the international market. The political platform of most Arab countries receive its financing from oil as the major economic resource. However, some countries derive their finances from trade and labour resource, which remits funds that support these countries. The supply of trade items in this region depends on political goodwill or international politics (Youngs 136). Thus, the unstable political structure is susceptible to challenges because it lacks proper structures that could influence beneficial trade deals in the international scene. The Arab Spring is a threat to regional integration and similar cooperation. World economic report groups the Arab countries as heavily reliant on oil trade. Since the Arab countries indulged in the upheavals, they have registered economic slump, calling for international aid and humanitarian aid. Ideally, the spring has devastating effects of the political structures that are crucial to the development of the nations. Observers have remarked on the consumption trends in the international market as well as the national market and noted a change in trend in the consumption of the oil and oil products. Critically, the consumption trends owe a lot on the international politics as defined by policies that create and promote the international relation (Prausello 166). For instance, the move by the international community to step up the war against Libyan president is an indication of influence of political relation in relation to the Arab spring. It means that the threat created in the political structures of these nations would have devastating impact on the growth as well as trade among these countries and the world. Domestic Consumption in Egypt Arab countries are leading other countries in the world in oil production. In 2005, Arab oil stood at 59% of the economic oil production of world, while the production of economic gases stood at 35.8% of the total world production (BP Statistical Review 15). The quantity of oil that Arab countries took to

A Critical Reflection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

A Critical Reflection - Essay Example I realized that I could make some money if I sold some branded wristbands to my friends at margin. Although the venture collapsed shortly thereafter due to lack of sufficient resources, it played a critical role in shaping my life towards always looking for opportunities to satisfy unmet business needs. I believe that success does not come only from working hard but also by seizing opportunities at the right time. Essentially, entrepreneurship requires one to have a knack of identifying the unmet needs, assessing the business potential of an idea and then finally committing to implement the idea. Since my first experience in business at the age of ten, I have made significant efforts to improve my personal organization skills in order to be effective. One of the key areas that greatly influence entrepreneurial success is time management. Planning and productive use of time is essential in helping one to achieve his or her goals (Bird and West 2007). In order to manage my time effecti vely, I always plan my work well in advance and try to follow the schedule accordingly. However, sometimes I do get distracted by other responsibilities such as family issues and deviate from my set plans. Also, private engagements and having fun consume a significant portion of my time which would otherwise be utilized in a more productive manner. Entrepreneurship often involves the pursuit of new and innovative ideas. Thus, an entrepreneur inherently works in a highly stressful and challenging work environment. I have managed to internalize and apply this skill in my life by exercising self awareness of my personal strengths and limitations as I pursue business goals. According to Rae, interpersonal interaction is a core component of entrepreneurship capabilities (Blenker et al 2012). Business inevitably involves interactions with people of various backgrounds. For instance, a businessman has to interact with customers, competitors, suppliers, government authorities and other stak eholders. In my daily endeavors, I always aim at growing my network of social and industry contacts. I have learnt that it is through interactions with people that I am able to find out what is important to them and understand the situation from their perspectives. This is fundamentally important for an entrepreneur as it helps one to gain comprehensive understanding of the customer and lays the foundations for creating a product that perfectly addresses the needs of the clients. Teamwork is essential in entrepreneurship since the tasks involved are often enormous and difficult for a single individual to handle (Clarke and Robin 2010). Working in teams requires the leader to rally individuals to towards the attainment of a common goal. Negotiations are also critical as part of interpersonal interactions since an entrepreneur has to bargain for the best deals possible. From the entrepreneurship module, I have that negotiations require proper planning, clear goals and patience (Robson 2010). These components are important since they help one to get the best results from any negotiation and reach a favorable agreement. Teece (2010) noted that an idea remains simply an idea unless it is rigorously assessed to ascertain its potential value. Imperatively, it is foolhardy to rush into executing a business a idea before investigating its viability. The first step of entrepreneurship is coming up with new or better ideas to solve challenges in the society. It is evident from the learning in this module that once an opportunity has been identified, the entrepreneur should investigate and develop options for exploiting the opportunity. It is also necessary for one to entrepreneur to identify how the available resources

Airlines and the Oligopoly Market Structure Assignment

Airlines and the Oligopoly Market Structure - Assignment Example These advantages are witnessed in service pricing, destination services, marketing, and promotion, as well as the established hub philosophy that drives either point-to-point destination services or major hub development. Much of these competitive advantages come from establishing a market-oriented culture, defined as â€Å"delivering superior value to customers† (Narver, Slater & Tietje 1998, p.242). It is about aligning the business model based on three dimensions, having a customer orientation, a competitor orientation, and the ability to coordinate all business units with an inter-functional, systems-based philosophy and structure (Gauzente 1999, p.2). The majority of the airlines identified in the research article have established a market-oriented business model and internal culture, that provides both competitive advantages over other airlines in this oligopoly as well as a strong brand in the consumer market. A market orientation strategy â€Å"is a powerful competiti ve advantage, because it is an invisible asset that takes a long time to establish and one that is difficult to imitate† (Johnson & Verayangkura 2001, p.2). ...   a market structure, constant environmental scanning occurs to witness the competitive behaviors of rival firms to avoid market share losses or loss of brand reputation in consumer markets. Nickels, McHugh & McHugh (2005) identify a competitive advantage as better development of core competencies. These are â€Å"functions that the organization can do as well or better than any other organization in the world† (Nickels, et al., p.257). In the article â€Å"the joys of oligopoly†, it is identified that the core competencies of Southwest Airlines, as one example, is the ability of the firm to structure its scheduling, labor, and point-to-point destination services to provide low-cost, no-frills service that continues to bring the business significant revenues from satisfied customers. While larger competitors with more market presence continue to provide customers better in-flight services that require a higher pricing model, Southwest is able to manage its services ef fectively and with limited perks for the more frugal consumer. Southwest is also able to follow an A to B flight philosophy which fills more seats daily rather than waiting at a regional hub for connecting traffic that allows for almost instantaneous departure after a flight has arrived at the airport (Associated Press 2001). The core competencies of Southwest are labor-related, flight capacity scheduling, and independence from hub philosophy. However, other airlines that do utilize a hub philosophy consider this a competitive advantage in this market structure as it provides â€Å"greater frequency, more destinations and lower fares than customers could expect without it† (Associated Press, p.3).

Medieval Philosophy Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Medieval Philosophy - Assignment Example Hence, metaphysical forces, including heavenly bodies and evil spirits, constrain human desires and create hurdles on the way to getting involved in different activities out of their free will. Furthermore, since the blessings and bounties showered by God upon humans, bring joys in their life, so humans must seek His protection in order to escape misfortunes in life. However, God has also granted powers to the evil forces existing in the universe and has allowed them to hurt and harm the individuals through their trickery. These forces tempt humans to follow their desires without making the adequate judgment between right and wrong. Consequently, there seems to be a high probability of humans to become prey to the evil temptations by extending their wishes and desires to a great extent. As a result, natural forces inflict the humans with deprivations that constraint their free will and limit their actions and conducts for the future days to come on the basis of the foreknowledge the Providence maintains. Question 3 (Answer): Contemporary era theologian and philosopher, Nelson Pike, has critically examined the Boethius’ doctrine regarding omniscience and free will. Since Boethius has submitted his claim that it is omniscience that constrains human free will, no human action is free and independent one in its nature and scope. However, Pike refutes the very notion by declaring it false and against the very evidence altogether. Pike is of the view that since God is all-Knowing and all-Powerful, He has foreknowledge of each and every incident that would happen in the life of every human throughout his life. Pike supports his thesis with several illustrations and examples, in order to clarify his argument regarding the powers granted to humans by the Lord for performing their domestic and professional duties and obligations. If a person, Pike argues, is determined to do something either trivial or important, God certainly maintains foreknowledge of it. Howeve r, He has allowed humans to apply their free will, out of their personal choices, in order to perform their everyday activities without any hurdle or obstacle on the way. In other words, though every incident to be taken place in the world in the life of humans is in the knowledge of God, yet He does not restrict the humans from taking part in individual and collective activities of their choice by constraining each and every human action. On the contrary, He has gifted the humans with the powers to even negate His very existence, as atheist observe, though He has complete foreknowledge of it. If God starts imposing constraints on every human action, then there would neither be any space for the atheists and infidels nor could humans be able to make this world a region where crimes, offenses, sins, and law-breaking occur very frequently. Thus, Pike nullifies Boethius’s doctrine that God’s omniscience limits human actions in such a powerful manner that it destroys the c oncept of free will altogether. However, Boethius does not claim that every human action is barred by the natural regulatory authorities.